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		<title>Sephardic Jews in the Early Modern Era &#8212; EGO </title>
	<meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="DC.Title" content="Sephardic Jews in the Early Modern Era"><meta name="DC.Source" content="EGO(http://www.ieg-ego.eu)"><meta name="DC.Date.Issued" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CTDF" content="2025-12-18"><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="WorldCathttp://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1564127148"><meta name="DC.Rights" content="CC by-nc-nd 3.0 Germany - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works"><meta name="DC.Description" content="Since the 16th century, when the first Jews expelled from the Iberian Peninsula arrived at the Sultan's invitation, the Ottoman Empire stood beside the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as the second great centre of Jewish life in the modern age. A comparatively tolerant policy encouraged important developments in culture and politics which were felt far beyond the frontiers of the Ottoman Empire. These included not only the modern Kabbala and Sabbatianism, a messianic movement, but also the emergence of Salonica, Safed and Istanbul as centres of scholarship whose influence continues to be felt in the Jewish faith. This article discusses the history of the Sephardim between their expulsion from Spain and Portugal and subsequent arrival in the Ottoman Empire and the end of the 18th century. It will also look at non-Ottoman Jews in south-eastern Europe and in the Protestant cities of Amsterdam, Hamburg and London, with the political status of these Sephardic populations varying considerably."><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="urn:nbn:de:0159-2512171102410.801066728184"><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" scheme="DCMIType"><meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" scheme="IMT"><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="generator" content="Plone - http://plone.com"></head>
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			<div id="content" class="grid_5">
	<h1>Sephardic Jews in the Early Modern Era</h1>
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			von 
			by 
 Predrag Bukovec
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				2025-12-18
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 	Sephardic Jews
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 Since the 16th century, when the first Jews expelled from the Iberian Peninsula arrived at the Sultan's invitation, the Ottoman Empire stood beside the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as the second great centre of Jewish life in the modern age. A comparatively tolerant policy encouraged important developments in culture and politics which were felt far beyond the frontiers of the Ottoman Empire. These included not only the modern Kabbala and Sabbatianism, a messianic movement, but also the emergence of Salonica, Safed and Istanbul as centres of scholarship whose influence continues to be felt in the Jewish faith. This article discusses the history of the Sephardim between their expulsion from Spain and Portugal and subsequent arrival in the Ottoman Empire and the end of the 18th century. It will also look at non-Ottoman Jews in south-eastern Europe and in the Protestant cities of Amsterdam, Hamburg and London, with the political status of these Sephardic populations varying considerably.
 
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 <h2>Introduction: The end of Jewry in the Iberian Peninsula</h2>
<blockquote>Whereas six centuries earlier a process had begun in which the principal forces of Jewry moved from East to West, we now see the advent of a significant historical turn, a reverse movement from West to East.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_0">1</a></blockquote>
Thus did <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/41590" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Simon Dubnow (1860&#8211;1941)">Simon Dubnow (1860&#8211;1941)</a> describe the end of Spanish Jewry, the so-called Sephardim. In retrospect, it can be seen as marking the beginning of a new era in Jewish history, set in a different part of Europe, in its <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4058449-5">south-eastern</a>&#160;parts under Ottoman rule. The waves of immigration into the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4075720-1">dominions of the Sublime Porte</a>&#160;began in the late 15th and continued throughout the 16th century.
Many of the Jews living in the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4047912-2">Iberian Peninsula</a> had converted to the Catholic faith following the Reconquista (reconquest)<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/al-andalus-moorish-spain-and-the-stages-of-the-reconquista" title="Al-Andalus: Moorish Spain and the Stages of the Reconquista"><img alt="Al Andalus: Das maurische Spanien und die Etappen der Reconquista, Karte, 2003, unbekannter Ersteller; Bildquelle: Rudolf, Hans Ulrich / Oswalt, Vadim: Taschenatlas Weltgeschichte: Europa und die Welt, 2. Auflage, Gotha 2003, S. 69, mit freundlicher Genehmigung des Klett Verlags." class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/religionsraeume-bilderordner/al-andalus-das-maurische-spanien-und-die-etappen-der-reconquista-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Al Andalus: Das maurische Spanien und die Etappen der Reconquista IMG"></a>. Yet they were subject to increasing legal and social discrimination, culminating in their expulsion. Doubts were cast on the motives of these conversos (converts) &#8211; also known as marranos, i.e. "pigs" or "unclean persons" &#8211; and on the sincerity of their adoption of Christianity. They hence found themselves exposed to an increasingly paranoid mood that also expressed a broad spectrum of sociological factors ranging from distrust of recently incorporated strangers to economic envy.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_1">2</a> When examining the subsequent history of these (former) marranos<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_2">3</a> in the Ottoman Empire into the 17th century, particular attention should be paid to their influence on the piety and theology of the Ottoman Jews. This comprised kabbalistic elements but also, on account of the persecution they had so recently escaped, a strong messianism expressive of a longing for redemption.
A symbolic event marking the beginning of the end of mediaeval Jewry in the Iberian Peninsula is the pogrom of&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4054671-8">Seville</a> (15 March 1391), which predated the expulsion of the Jews by roughly a century. This pogrom was the first of a series of anti-Jewish outrages to be perpetrated across the kingdoms of&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4055964-6">Spain</a> and&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4046843-4">Portugal</a> over the following decades. As such, it also marks the end of the peaceful coexistence of religious communities that had distinguished Moorish Spain.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_3">4</a>
Legal discrimination began in 1412, when rules were issued governing not only what styles of clothing and beard Jews were permitted or obliged to wear but also what occupations they were allowed to pursue. At the same time, the decrees of 1412 prohibited Jews from emigrating from the Kingdom of Spain, thereby depriving them of the chance to escape discrimination. This official policy of repression culminated in the so-called Alhambra Edict of 1492, which ordered the expulsion of Jews from Spain.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_4">5</a> Those Jews who refused to convert duly fled, with one half moving eastwards to&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027833-5">Italy</a> (especially to cities under aristocratic rule)<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_5">6</a> or to the Ottoman Empire and the other half escaping to Portugal, which, however, decreed their expulsion only a few years later.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_6">7</a>
The persecuted Jews could leave the Iberian Peninsula by several migration routes. Besides the sea route to Italy or&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042482-0">North Africa</a>, many travelled overland to France.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_7">8</a> Yet&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4018145-5">France</a> was merely a transit country<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_8">9</a> since its religious policy did not permit reversion to the Jewish faith. The expellees therefore set their sights on the Ottoman Empire and not least on Protestant trading cities which permitted the exercise of the Jewish faith, if often with restrictions. Moreover, the new arrivals had opportunities for participation in trade with the colonies and with the Iberian Peninsula, to their own benefit and to that of the Protestant mercantile cities themselves (see below)<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/centres-of-sephardic-jewish-settlement-in-17th-century-europe" title="Centres of Sephardic Jewish settlement in 17th-century Europe"><img alt="Ansiedlungszentren sephardischer Juden in Europa im 17. Jahrhundert IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/sephardische-juden-bilderordner/ansiedlungszentren-sephardischer-juden-in-europa-im-17.-jahrhundert-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ansiedlungszentren sephardischer Juden in Europa im 17. Jahrhundert IMG"></a>. Some even followed these trading routes overseas, settling as far afield as&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4008003-1">Brazil</a> or New Amsterdam (modern <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042011-5">New York</a>).<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_9">10</a>
<h2>Jews in the Ottoman Empire: basic facts</h2>
Estimates regarding the number of Jewish immigrants vary widely. Some set the figure of refugees to the Ottoman Empire in the 15th and particularly the 16th century at around 50,000;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_10">11</a> others speak of double that figure in the early 16th century, most of whom settled in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4051394-4">Salonica</a> and in the capital,&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027821-9">Istanbul</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_11">12</a> However, reliable figures are hard to obtain<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_12">13</a> since they are usually based on the poll tax levied on adult men, to which a corresponding number of women and children are then speculatively added. Dissimulation and tax evasion, commonplace phenomena in early modern states, makes these figures even more unreliable. What we do know is that the Ottoman government sometimes deliberately steered migration according to its interests. In 1523 the Sultan settled Jews in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4049859-1">Rhodes</a> and in 1571 in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079596-2">Cyprus</a>, which had formerly been a Venetian possession.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_13">14</a> By settling newly acquired territories with loyal subjects, the Sultan sought to consolidate his power.
The immigration of Jews in such large numbers was keenly felt not least by the Jewish population already settled in these territories, who were known as Romaniotes in reference to Constantinople's status as the 'second Rome', and by the small population of&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/ashkenazi-jews-in-early-modern-europe/predrag-bukovec-ashkenazi-jews-in-early-modern-europe" title="Ashkenazi Jews in Early Modern Europe">Ashkenazi</a> (eastern European) Jews.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_14">15</a> Some of the latter group arrived as economic migrants in the 16th and 17th centuries; others formed part of settled populations that came under Ottoman rule, for instance in the course of the Ottoman Empire's short-lived conquest of&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4386758-3">Podolia</a> (1672&#8211;1699) from the&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1060577984">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>.
A third group consisted of pilgrims travelling to the&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4044381-4">Holy Land</a> (which had been under Ottoman rule since 1517), for whom Salonica or Istanbul became permanent homes rather than stops along the way. Accordingly, taxation in Istanbul, the imperial capital, soon followed a two-tier system, with the Romaniotes (S&#252;rg&#252;nl&#252;), the Byzantine Jews who predated the arrival of the Sephardim, being taxed separately from the new arrivals, who were assigned to the Kendi Gelen tax district.
A further Jewish group deserves mention in the context of the early modern Ottoman Empire and its capital in particular: the Karaites. Unlike the other Jewish communities discussed here, who differed in their rite but not in their acceptance of both the Torah and Talmud as pillars of the faith (Rabbinic or Rabbanite Judaism), Karaites accept the scriptural authority of the Hebrew Bible alone and reject the "oral Torah", i.e. the commentary contained in the two versions of the Talmud. In spite of this crucial difference, a flourishing discourse existed between the two strands of Judaism in the 15th and 16th centuries, subsiding only later.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_15">16</a>
In Istanbul, the Yahudiler, as Jews are known in Turkish, resided mostly close to marketplaces and in certain districts, notably&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4096340-8">Galata</a>,&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4261064-3">Emin&#246;n&#252;</a>,&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4378691-1">Hask&#246;y</a> and&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4843774-8">Balat</a>. The latter two in particular formed the capital's Jewish centre from around 1660 into the 19th century.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_16">17</a> After 1566 Jews were forbidden from settling close to a mosque.
The other city to witness an influx of Spanish Jews was Salonica, whose Jewish population increased so rapidly as to reconfigure its demographic makeup. By the 1520s, Jews constituted the majority of Salonica's population,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_17">18</a> the city becoming known &#8211; not without reason &#8211; as the "Jerusalem of the Balkans". The first Jewish printing press was established in Salonica as early as early 1515. Salonica was also to play a major role in the 17th-century mass movement of Sabbatianism. The followers of&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/3267035" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Sabbatai Zevi (1626&#8211;1676)">Sabbatai Zevi (1626&#8211;1676)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/shabtai-zvi" title="Shabtai Zvi (1626&#8211;1676)">[<img alt="Shabtai Zvi (1626&#8211;1676) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/juedische-netzwerke-bilderordner/shabtai-zvi-repro.tif/@@images/image/thumb" title="Shabtai Zvi (1626&#8211;1676) IMG">]</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_18">19</a> and, later, those of his adherents who converted to Islam (Turkish D&#246;nme, "converts"), were centred on Salonica; their teachings penetrated into&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4075739-0">eastern Europe</a> in the form of&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/de/threads/europa-unterwegs/juedische-migration/aschkenasische-juden-im-europa-der-fruehen-neuzeit/predrag-bukovec-jakob-frank-und-der-frankismus" title="Jakob Frank und der Frankismus">Frankism</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_19">20</a> The D&#246;nme maintained a distinct identity at least into the early 20th century.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_20">21</a> In the 19th century Salonica drew strong interest from western European Jews seeking to spread the Jewish enlightenment (<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-networks/jewish-networks/marie-schumacher-brunhes-enlightenment-jewish-style-the-haskalah-movement-in-europe" title="Enlightenment Jewish Style: The Haskalah Movement in Europe">Haskalah</a>) in the Ottoman Empire. The Alliance Isra&#233;lite Universelle<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/school-of-the-alliance-israelite-universelle-in-edirne" title="School of the Alliance Isra&#233;lite Universelle in Edirne"><img alt="Schule der AIU in Edirne IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/juedische-netzwerke-bilderordner/schule-der-aiu-in-edirne-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Schule der AIU in Edirne IMG"></a>, an international philanthropic organisation founded in Paris in 1860, ran schools in the city as well as a teacher training college whose students were expected to spend a semester abroad in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4044660-8">Paris</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_21">22</a> Salonica held an eminent place in the Jewish world until the events of the Second World War, in the course of which almost the entire Jewish population of the city was killed.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_22">23</a>
New Jewish communities were also established in other cities of south-eastern Europe.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_23">24</a> The city of&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4077016-3">Sarajevo</a>&#160;in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4007826-7">Bosnia</a> was an Ottoman foundation, as its non-Slavic name (originally Saraybosna, the first part of which denotes "palace" or "seraglio") suggests. Since its foundation in 1462, Jewish merchant families moved to the city, mostly from Salonica. A distinct Jewish district or mahala ("settlement") &#8211; i.e. a district with a predominantly Jewish population &#8211; existed in Sarajevo since 1565<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_24">25</a> and was known as Velika avlija ("Great Court").<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_25">26</a> The great Jewish scholar&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/15201968" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="David Pardo (1718&#8211;1790)">David Pardo (1718&#8211;1790)</a> was a native of the city, where he served as Haham (rabbi) and founded a Talmud school in 1768.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_26">27</a> Another prominent figure born in Sarajevo was the pro-Zionist rabbi&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/76206041" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Jehuda Alkalai (1798&#8211;1878)">Jehuda Alkalai (1798&#8211;1878)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/yehuda-alkalai-179820131878" title="Yehuda Alkalai (1798&#8211;1878)">[<img alt="Jehuda Alkalai (1798-1878) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/zionismus-in-europa-bilderordner/Alkalai-Jehuda-undat.jpg/@@images/image/thumb" title="Jehuda Alkalai (1798-1878) IMG">]</a>, who grew up, however, in the Holy Land.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_27">28</a>
The settlement of Ottoman Jews in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4005411-1">Belgrade</a> followed a similar pattern to that seen in Sarajevo, with Jewish merchant families being the first arrivals from the south.&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/102273394X">Dorc&#243;l</a> became the city's Jewish district. Belgrade remained under Ottoman rule until 1830. In that year, it became the capital of&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4054598-2">Serbia</a>, the first nation-state in the&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4004334-4">Balkans</a> to gain its independence in the course of the&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/markus-koller-ottoman-history-of-south-east-europe" title="Ottoman History of South-East Europe">19th-century upheavals</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_28">29</a>
Beginning in the 17th century, many Jews also settled in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4096359-7">Izmir</a> (Greek Smyrna) on the coast of Asia Minor.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_29">30</a> These were not only of Sephardic-Ottoman origin but also included many Jews originally from&#160;northern <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042547-2">Italy</a>.
Particularly important as a centre of Jewish culture was the Palestinian town of&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4225222-2">Safed</a> (Hebrew Zefat).<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_30">31</a> As Sephardic Jews<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_31">32</a> moved in, Safed became a hub of early modern Jewish mysticism.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_32">33</a> The town enjoyed certain advantages over other places in the Holy Land, including&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4028586-8">Jerusalem</a>, notably the lower taxation levied by the Ottoman authorities. Safed was also prosperous, leading the Levant in textile production and with its manufactures closely connected to south-eastern Europe by a dense economic network. Its first Hebrew printing press was set up in 1563. Ottoman records show the number of Jewish families in Safed to have risen from twenty-one in 1525 to two hundred in 1568.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_33">34</a> In the 17th century Safed became one of the centres of Sabbatianism, whose messianic doctrine was based on kabbalistic foundations. It was received with particular enthusiasm in Safed because messianic expectation had been the principal driving force for emigration to the town in the 16th century.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_34">35</a> Nearby lies the tomb of the 2nd century Tannaitic scholar&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/10789306" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Shimon bar Yochai">Shimon bar Yochai</a>, traditionally claimed to have dictated to his students the Zohar ("book of splendour"), the foundational text of Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah).
Safed became famous as the birthplace of Lurianic Kabbalah.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_35">36</a> Its founder, the mystic and ascetic <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/120700932" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Isaac Luria (1534&#8211;1572)">Isaac Luria (1534&#8211;1572)</a>, traced his ancestry to Italy and grew up in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4029236-8">Cairo</a>. In Safed, he gathered a circle of pupils that included such eminent Kabbalists as&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/12317536" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Moses Cordovero (1522&#8211;1570)">Moses Cordovero (1522&#8211;1570)</a>,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/34704971" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Hayyim Vital (1542&#8211;1620)">Hayyim Vital (1542&#8211;1620)</a>&#160;and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88686046" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Karo (1488&#8211;1575)">Joseph Karo (1488&#8211;1575)</a>, the author of the Shulchan Aruch, the most widely-used code of Jewish law (halakha). At the heart of Luria's development of Jewish mysticism lies the doctrine of the tzimtzum,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_36">37</a> the self-restraint by which the boundless One makes space for creation. According to this doctrine, a mishap occurred during the act of Creation in which the sparks of divine light became mixed with matter (the "shattering of the vessel" is the Lurianic metaphor) and must be returned. The Jewish people and its life of exile function as placeholders of sorts in this process of redemption.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_37">38</a> Messianic ideas take on new virulence in this context, culminating in the 17th century in the mysticism of Sabbatai Zevi.
The theological and cultural peculiarities of the Sephardic immigrants soon came to predominate among Ottoman Jews. This "Sephardization" of the other Jewish communities, who soon found themselves outnumbered, was reflected in ritual and organization as well as in language: Ladino or Judeo-Spanish became the everyday language of most Jews in the Ottoman Empire.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_38">39</a> By the mid-17th century at the latest, this acculturation and redefinition of Ottoman Jewry consolidated the Sephardic ascendancy over other Jewish groups.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_39">40</a> Meanwhile, memories of their Iberian roots faded among the Sephardim themselves, becoming the subject of myth and legend while feeding a sense of superiority over the established Jewish population.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_40">41</a>
Jewish experts in certain professions very soon gained recognition from and entered service with the Sublime Porte. As had earlier been the case in Spain, already in the 16th century Jewish specialists could be found at the courts of sultans&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/89743257" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Suleiman I (ca. 1494&#8211;1566)">Suleiman the Magnificent (ca. 1494&#8211;1566)</a> and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/44058182" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Selim II (1525&#8211;1574)">Selim II (1525&#8211;1574)</a>. Like, for instance, Moses Hamon (1490&#8211;ca. 1567), they served the Ottoman sultans as personal physicians or diplomats; the ruler's harem included Jewish women capable of taking advantage of their proximity to the centre of power and even influencing affairs of state, the most famous being Ester Handali (d. 1590). Generally speaking, the court gained in political power relative to the person of the sultan over the course of the 16th century.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_41">42</a>
Some Jews also attained positions of prominence in commerce and trade. An example of the rise of Jews in the Ottoman Empire is&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/121288444" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Nasi (1515&#8211;1579)">Joseph Nasi (1515&#8211;1579)</a>, a marrano from Portugal.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_42">43</a> By and large, the Jewish faith was not discriminated against in the Ottoman Empire. It was integrated within the limits of&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/richard-potz-islam-and-islamic-law-in-european-legal-history" title="Islamic Law and the Transfer of European Law">Islamic law</a>, which distinguished between Muslims and other "people of the book" (Arabic ahl al-kitab), which in practical terms meant above all a higher rate of taxation. Troubled times, however, might in turn spell trouble for the Jews. The source of tensions was usually the military, whose behaviour might be arbitrary and unpredictable,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_43">44</a> though this tended to affect the Christian sections of the population more than the Jews. The situation was nothing like in&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079215-8">western Europe</a> or even in the moderate Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_44">45</a> pogroms were unknown. As a general rule, a concentration of power at the sultan's court meant easy conditions for Jews and Christians, who might suffer at the hands of the military and local authorities during periods of the court's weakness.
Serving alcohol in taverns was an occupation forbidden to Muslims under Islamic law and hence the preserve of non-Muslims.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_45">46</a> Salonica, moreover, saw the growth of an immense Jewish cloth industry whose regular customers included the Ottoman army.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_46">47</a> In trade with the West, particularly via&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4013176-2">Ragusa</a>, many Jews were successful both as retailers and as middlemen for large European (especially Venetian) exporters.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_47">48</a> In due course, the Jews of Salonica were able to branch out into fisheries and dock work, with tobacco becoming a highly profitable source of income in the 19th century.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_48">49</a>
<h2>The organisation and structure of Ottoman Jewry</h2>
It is once again being discussed whether the Jewish subjects of the Ottoman Empire, like their Christian counterparts, had a leader who &#8211; as ethnarch, chief rabbi or haham ba&#351;&#305;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_49">50</a> &#8211; represented the religious community vis-&#224;-vis the ruler while being recognised within it as a central authority. Sometimes cited early example among Ottoman Jewry, predating the wave of Sephardic immigration, is Moses Capsali (1420&#8211;ca. 1495), chief rabbi under Sultan&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/40320065" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Murad II (ca. 1403&#8211;1451)">Murad II (ca. 1403&#8211;1451)</a>. Yet this idea of the comparability of Christian and Jewish leaders is largely met with scepticism in today's scholarly debates. This is due only in part to the scarcity of sources. Capsali was responsible above all for the Jews of the capital. He had no successor in a comparable function; only in 1835 was a chief rabbinate created for the entire country.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_50">51</a> Instead, since the mid-1600s Istanbul had a so-called ma'amad (Hebrew "gathering"). In this body, rabbis and leading laymen of the community jointly administered the affairs of the capital's Jews. Before the 19th-century reform of the millet system, which regulated the minority status of non-Muslims and the autonomy of the Empire's religious communities, Ottoman Jewry had constituted itself in the form of autonomous local communities with marked regional differences in administrative structure.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_51">52</a> In 18th-century Edirne (the Byzantine Adrianople), for instance, two chief rabbis appear to have shared the running of the community. A striking feature, however, is the strong connection that existed between the various Jewish communities throughout the Ottoman Empire.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_52">53</a>
Within the constraints imposed by the Ottoman Empire's state and religious laws (see above), the Jewish communities enjoyed relative autonomy and performed important administrative, social and political functions for their members.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_53">54</a> They represented their members before the local authorities and were responsible for gathering and paying taxes on their behalf. Of the various taxes and levies raised by the Ottoman state, the most important was the poll tax (Arabic jizya, Turkish cizye), for which every non-Muslim adult male subject was liable and which was justified with reference to the Quran (9,29). The ordination of a rabbi was subject to a fee known as rav ak&#231;esi; from 1653 the Ottoman authorities sought moreover to profit from many Jews' mobility by charging a special relocation fee. Additional taxes or contributions in kind might be raised as the situation demanded &#8211; in wartime, for instance, either to maintain the troops or in lieu of military service, for which only Muslim subjects were eligible.
Internally, the communities were responsible for the practice of religion by running the synagogues and for education in elementary (Talmud Torah) and advanced (yeshivot) religious schools. They were also in charge of matters of civil status (marriage and divorce), of funerals and of disputes under civil law, of care for the poor and, by establishing and maintaining hospices, for healthcare. In the context of a pre-industrial, early modern society, the Jewish community thus assumed, from a modern perspective, state-like functions vis-&#224;-vis its members, securing them through a tight social and institutional network. In turn, the Jewish communities were themselves responsible for meeting the state's fiscal demands as well as its own. It sometimes occurred that these funds were raised by force. A disadvantageous development for the wider Jewish population was the increasing tendency for communities to be run as oligarchies, with power concentrated in the hands of a few influential families.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_54">55</a>
<h2>Communities in non-Ottoman cities</h2>
Any discussion of Sephardic Jews and their history must look beyond Ottoman territories. Unlike the Sephardim who lived under Turkish rule, the Jews in other cities of south-eastern Europe must be regarded as belonging to the periphery of central European Jewry under the Habsburg Empire. Further relevant examples of Sephardic life in Europe can be found in Protestant, mercantile cities, notably&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4001783-7">Amsterdam</a>, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4023118-5">Hamburg</a>&#160;and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4074335-4">London</a>. With their contacts to Spain and Portugal, the Jews who settled in these rising cities came to play in important role in trade with the Iberian Peninsula and its&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/colonialism-and-imperialism/benedikt-stuchtey-colonialism-and-imperialism-1450-1950" title="Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450&#8211;1950">colonies</a> in the New World, acting as middlemen<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_55">56</a> while benefitting from the political protection the cities offered from persecution and discrimination by the Spanish authorities.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_56">57</a>
Among the non-Ottoman cities in south-eastern Europe, the most important Jewish communities were those of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4108914-5">Zagreb</a>&#160;(German Agram), a territory of the Hungarian crown, and the free city of Dubrovnik (Italian Ragusa). The first documented reference to Jews in Zagreb occurs in the Middle Ages (1355),<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_57">58</a> though contemporary sources tell us little more than that the Jews left the city in 1460. It is uncertain whether they were expelled or had to leave for another reason.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_58">59</a> Only in 1782 did Emperor&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/268608732/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Emperor Joseph II (1741&#8211;1790)">Joseph II (1741&#8211;1790)</a> issue an edict of toleration that allowed Jews once again to settle in Zagreb. The first to do so were largely Ashkenazi Jews from elsewhere in the Habsburg Empire, who formed an urban bourgeoisie well integrated into wider society,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_59">60</a> while Sephardim joined them only in the 19th and 20th centuries. The independent city-state of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) &#8211; which was decisively influenced by its principal trading partner, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4062501-1">Venice</a>&#160;&#8211; had been continuously settled by north Italian Jews since 1368. The presence of Jews in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4070200-5">Dalmatia</a>&#160;is recorded forty years earlier in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4077687-6">Split</a>, which has also had a continuous Jewish population since that date.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_60">61</a>
Of the Protestant, mercantile cities of early modern western Europe which Sephardic Jews made their destination, Amsterdam in the United&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042203-3">Netherlands</a> was surely the most prosperous owing to both international trade<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_61">62</a> and the processing of such goods as rough diamonds and silk.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_62">63</a> Its Jewish community in due course became the largest.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_63">64</a> From approximately 1,200 Jewish residents in 1620<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_64">65</a> the proportion grew to around six to seven per cent of the city's population,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_65">66</a> suggesting a community of some 2,000 members by the end of the century.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_66">67</a> Amsterdam had opened its gates to expelled Sephardic Jews in the late 1500s, who were soon joined by Ashkenazim from eastern Europe.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_67">68</a> The legal basis for the immigrants' existence was the Jewish statue of 1616,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_68">69</a> which codified comparatively generous freedoms of economic activity,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_69">70</a> political rights and religious autonomy.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_70">71</a> The Calvinist city fathers did not interfere with internal Jewish affairs, granting conversos the right to return to the faith and guaranteeing the practice of Jewish traditions.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_71">72</a> The best-known case of this internal jurisdiction is surely that of the most famous scion of Amsterdam's Sephardic Jewry, the philosopher&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/22149024" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Baruch de Spinoza (1632&#8211;1677)">Baruch de Spinoza (1632&#8211;1677)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/baruch-spinoza-163220131677" title="Baruch de Spinoza">[<img alt="Baruch de Spinoza (1632&#8211;1677) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/sephardische-juden-bilderordner/baruch-de-spinoza-163220131677-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Baruch de Spinoza (1632&#8211;1677) IMG">]</a>, who was expelled from the community as a heretic with a writ of herem issued against him.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_72">73</a>
Things were different in the Hanseatic city of Hamburg,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_73">74</a> where the Sephardic immigrants became caught up in the city's internal conflicts and were subject to the whims of its authorities.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_74">75</a> Their status also differed in that the community was forced to pay a special tax or Scho&#223;geld in order to retain its right of residence.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_75">76</a> In 1610 the city decreed the toleration of Portuguese merchants, meaning the Sephardic Jews who, in a disingenuous concession to the Holy Roman Empire's laws, were classified by trade and territorial origin rather than religious affiliation.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_76">77</a> Their residence in Hamburg was placed on a permanent legal footing with the contract of settlement agreed in 1612 (with revisions in 1617 and 1650) between the city and these "Portuguese merchants".<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_77">78</a> What made this measure unique at the time was that it ensured the protection of the Jewish minority not by sovereign decree but, at least formally, by treaty between two equal partners.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_78">79</a> Legally speaking, the immigrants were treated not as Jews but rather as a foreign community defined by trade and bound to the city by a contract involving both sides. At the time the contract was agreed, it applied to an estimated 150 Jewish immigrants.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_79">80</a> However, the contract also spelt out what the city expected of the immigrants, namely the promotion of its colonial trade and particularly access to the lucrative Iberian market. At the same time, coemption with the city's guilds was to be avoided.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_80">81</a> The exercise of religion, by contrast, was treated far less tolerantly than in Amsterdam, which was due largely to the influence of orthodox Lutheran opinion as exercised through Hamburg's city council.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_81">82</a> Jewish religious services were not permitted in Hamburg itself, Jews having instead to resort to nearby&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4085080-8">Altona</a> (ruled by Denmark until 1864) for the purpose. The Altona synagogue can thus be seen as expressing a modus vivendi that made life in Hamburg possible for the Sephardim while making concessions both to Christian prejudice and legal-political circumstances. Subsequent revisions of the contract slightly eased the restrictions on religious services without creating conditions resembling those in Amsterdam. Throughout the 17th century, Hamburg's Jewish policy vacillated between economic utilitarianism, particularly on the part of the city council, on the one side and the anti-Jewish attitudes of its Lutheran dignitaries on the other.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_82">83</a>
In London too the Sephardim were categorised not as Jews but, in accordance with English law, as non-Anglicans,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_83">84</a> as being &#8211; like Roman Catholics &#8211; outside the Established Church. Jewish policy in general was of marginal concern in 17th-century England. While the Whitehall Conference of 1655, convened under the protectorate of&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/34498004" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Oliver Cromwell (1599&#8211;1658)">Oliver Cromwell (1599&#8211;1658)</a>, was meant to regulate the status of the Jewish minority,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_84">85</a> its outcome was deferred<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_85">86</a> and a "policy of tacit toleration"<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_86">87</a> pursued instead. There is a certain historical irony in this very lack of a firm legal status working to the advantage of the Jewish community: Following the restoration of&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88984774" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Charles II of England (1630&#8211;1685)">King Charles II (1630&#8211;1685)</a> in 1660, all laws passed without royal assent since the beginning of the Civil War were repealed. Since there had been no law concerning the Sephardic Jews, the policy of tacit toleration could continue.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_87">88</a>
<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/295586976/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Predrag Bukovec">Predrag Bukovec</a>
</div> <h2>Appendix</h2>
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Scholem, Gerschom: Shabtai Zwi in Hamburg, in: Michael Studemund-Hal&#233;vy (ed.): Die Sefarden in Hamburg: Zur Geschichte einer Minderheit, Hamburg 1994, vol. 1, pp. 201&#8211;224.
Schwartz, Stephen: Sarajevo Rose: A Balkan Jewish Notebook, London 2005.
Sharot, Stephen: Messianism, Mysticism, and Magic: A Sociological Analysis of Jewish Religious Movements, Chapel Hill 1982.
Simon, Emmanuelle: S&#233;pharades de Turquie en Isra&#235;l: &#201;l&#233;ments d'histoire et de culture des Jud&#233;o-Espagnols, Paris et al. 1999.
Steindorff, Ludwig: Die j&#252;dische Gemeinde in Zagreb: Ein Gang durch ihre Geschichte, in: Annelore Engel-Braunschmidt et al. (eds.): J&#252;dische Welten in Osteuropa, Frankfurt am Main 2005, pp. 155&#8211;175 (Kieler Werkst&#252;cke, Reihe F: Beitr&#228;ge zur osteurop&#228;ischen Geschichte 8).
Stoutenbeek, Jan / Vigeveno, Paul: J&#252;disches Amsterdam, Vienna 2007.
Voolen, Edward van: Juden im Amsterdam Rembrandts, in: Christian T&#252;mpel (ed.): Im Lichte Rembrandts: Das Alte Testament im Goldenen Zeitalter der niederl&#228;ndischen Kunst, Munich et al. 1994, pp. 207&#8211;218.
Wallenborn, Hiltrud: Bekehrungseifer, Judenangst und Handelsinteresse: Amsterdam, Hamburg und London als Ziele sefardischer Migration im 17. Jahrhundert, Hildesheim et al. 2003 (Haskala 27).
Weber, Klaus: Zwischen Religion und &#214;konomie: Sepharden und Hugenotten in Hamburg, 1580&#8211;1800, in: Henning P. J&#252;rgens et al. (eds.): Religion und Mobilit&#228;t: Zum Verh&#228;ltnis von raumbezogener Mobilit&#228;t und religi&#246;ser Identit&#228;tsbildung im fr&#252;hneuzeitlichen Europa, G&#246;ttingen 2010, pp. 137&#8211;167 (Ver&#246;ffentlichungen des Instituts f&#252;r Europ&#228;ische Geschichte &#8211; Beihefte 81).&#160;URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.13109/9783666100949.137" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.13109/9783666100949.137</a>&#160;[2025-12-17]
Werblowsky, Zwi: Joseph Karo: Lawyer and Mystic, Oxford 1962 (Scripta Judaica 4).
Yovel, Yirmiyahu: Spinoza and Other Heretics, Princeton, NJ 1992, vol. 1: The Marrano of Reason.&#160;URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691237633" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691237633</a>&#160;[2025-12-17]
Zohar, Zion: Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: From the Golden Age of Spain to Modern Times, New York 2005.&#160;URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814797419.001.0001" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814797419.001.0001</a>&#160;[2025-12-17]
<h3>Additional new literature (since the publication of the German original version)</h3>
Bitunjac, Martina (Hg.): J&#252;dische Lebenswelten im Osmanischen Reich, Berlin et al. 2024. URL:&#160; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111048949" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111048949</a> [2025-12-17]
Daniels, Jacob: The Jews of Edirne: The End of Ottoman Europe and the Arrival of Borders, Stanford 2025.
Holl, Bernhard: Die Conversos: Christliche Gegner und Verteidiger der iberischen Neu&#173;christen in den Jahren vor 1492, Baden-Baden 2022. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.5771/9783956509667" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.5771/9783956509667</a> [2025-12-17]
Kaplan, Josef (Hg.): Religious Changes and Cultural Transformations in the Early Modern Western Sephardic Communities, Leiden et al. 2019. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004392489" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004392489</a> [2025-12-17]
Rauschenbach, Sina (Hg.): Sefardische Perspektiven, Leipzig 2020. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.25932/publishup-66099" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.25932/publishup-66099</a> [2025-12-17]
Rauschenbach, Sina (Hg.): Sephardim and Ashkenazim, Jewish-Jewish Encounters in History and Literature, Berlin et al. 2020 (Europ&#228;isch-j&#252;dische Studien 18). URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110695410" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110695410</a> [2025-12-17]
Ray, Jonathan: After Expulsion: 1492 and the Making of Sephardic Jewry, New York 2013. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814729113.001.0001" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814729113.001.0001</a> [2025-12-17]
<h3>Notes</h3>
<ol id="InsertNote_NoteList" type="1">
<li id="InsertNoteID_0"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_0_marker1">^</a> Dubnow, Weltgeschichte 1971, p. 287. By the movement from east to west Dubnow means the flourishing of Spanish Jewry since the conquest of the Iberian Penisula by the Moors, who had defeated the Visigoths in 711.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_1"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_1_marker2">^</a> The background here is the Spanish doctrine of "pure blood" ("limpieza de sangre"); see: Hering Torres, Rassismus 2006, with reference to the Spanish padre clergyman Fray Francisco de Torrejoncillo's Centinela contra jud&#237;os ("the sentinel against the jews"), in which the doctrine of original sin was coupled with Jewish descent.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_2"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_2_marker3">^</a> Many Jews who had converted to Catholicism under Spanish rule decided, once settled in the Ottoman Empire and free from pressure to conform to the dominant religion, to revert to Judaism. Spain punished apostasy by death, a law that applied only to Muslims in the Ottoman Empire.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_3"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_3_marker4">^</a> By way of introduction: Leroy, Die Sephardim 1991; Bossong, Die Sepharden 2008; Rehrmann, Spanien 1999; Zohar, Sephardic 2005; Clot, L'Espagne musulmane 1999; Simon, S&#233;pharades 1999, pp. 25&#8211;35.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_4"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_4_marker5">^</a> See Levy, Introduction 1994, p. 2: " ... the world's leading Jewish community, efflorescent and long-established, was suddenly uprooted and destroyed." See Pinto, Jevreji 1987, p. 11.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_5"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_5_marker6">^</a> See Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, p. 13. On Venice, see Israel, Empires 1990, p. 422.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_6"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_6_marker7">^</a> See Sharot, Messianism 1982, p. 76; David, Safed 1987, pp. 63&#8211;65. In 1492, the year of their expulsion, Sultan Bayezid II (ca. 1447/1448&#8211;1512) issued a decree promoting the immigration of Jews to the Ottoman Empire and prohibiting its obstruction.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_7"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_7_marker8">^</a> See Arbell, Die Wanderung 2002, p. 27.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_8"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_8_marker9">^</a> See Arbell, Die Wanderung 2002, p. 28.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_9"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_9_marker10">^</a> See Israel, Empires 1990, p. 437.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_10"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_10_marker11">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 373.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_11"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_11_marker12">^</a> See Dubnow, Weltgeschichte 1971, pp. 287f. The history of the toponym "Istanbul" is complicated: The capital of the Byzantine Empire was officially renamed "Constantinople" in 324 and the name was officially retained even under Ottoman rule, while the new name gained currency in vernacular speech. Only with the Ottoman constitution of 1876 did "Istanbul" gain official recognition. Recent historical scholarship has adopted the convention of referring to the Ottoman Empire's capital as Istanbul in order to mark the caesura of 1453.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_12"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_12_marker13">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 58. According to Levy, Introduction 1994, p. 9, the proportion in Istanbul between Sephardic and Romaniote (Greek-speaking) Jews was initially 1 to 4, the Sephardim remaining a minority until 1623.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_13"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_13_marker14">^</a> See Faroqhi, Geschichte 2000, p. 37.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_14"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_14_marker15">^</a> On the Jews of eastern Europe see Bukovec, Aschkenasische Juden 2010. The immigration of Ashkenazy Jews to the Ottoman Empire began in the 15th century, see Dubnow, Weltgeschichte 1971, pp. 279f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_15"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_15_marker16">^</a> On the Karaites in general see Morgenstern, Tora-Kommunikation 2009. Morgenstern's essay describes the origins of Istanbul's Karaite community and their fertile discourse with Rabbanite (Talmudic) Judaism in the early modern era. Moses Capsali (see below) sought to prevent young Karaites from being accepted to yeshivot (Rabbanite schools); a decree rescinded by his successor in an act symbolic of the relatively tolerant climate within Judaism in early modern Istanbul.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_16"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_16_marker17">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 68. The concentration on these districts of Istanbul by and large remained into the 19th century. Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 72 estimates the Jewish minority to have numbered 30,000&#8211;40,000 persons.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_17"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_17_marker18">^</a> See Levy, Introduction 1994, p. 6. Lowry, Testimony 1994, p. 203 describes Salonica as "a Jewish enclave in an otherwise Muslim state".</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_18"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_18_marker19">^</a> For an outline of Sabbatai Zevi see Scholem, Art. "Shabbetai &#7826;evi" 2007.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_19"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_19_marker20">^</a> See Bukovec, Jakob Frank 2012. On Sabbatianism in Hamburg see Scholem, Shabtai Zwi 1994.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_20"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_20_marker21">^</a> On the D&#246;nme, esp.in the 19th and 20th centuries, see Baer, The D&#246;nme 2010. On the 17th century see Davidowicz, Jakob Frank 1998, pp. 101&#8211;105.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_21"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_21_marker22">^</a> See Faroqhi, Geschichte 2000, p. 109.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_22"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_22_marker23">^</a> See Bukovec, Ost- und s&#252;dosteurop&#228;ische Juden 2011.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_23"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_23_marker24">^</a> No figures are available for the cities of Belgrade, Sarajevo and Skopje in the early modern era, see Panova, Die Juden 1997, p. 57.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_24"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_24_marker25">^</a> See Pinto, Jevreji 1987, p. 12; Schwartz, Sarajevo Rose 2005, p. 73.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_25"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_25_marker26">^</a> See Panova, Die Juden 1997, p. 58; Mose, Art. "Bosnien" 1927. The Jewish quarter was established in 1580/1581, see Pinto, Jevreji 1987, p. 23; see pp. 25&#8211;42 for Sephardic customs in Sarajevo.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_26"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_26_marker27">^</a> See Panova, Die Juden 1997, p. 81. Pardo was born in Venice and came to Ottoman Sarajevo via Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik). As haham from 1765 to 1781, he was the head of the city's Jewish community before moving to Jerusalem, where he died. See Panova, Die Juden 1997, pp. 111f. Sarajevo's Jewish history also figures in Yugoslavian literature, for example the short stories of the Nobel laureate Ivo Andri&#263;: Andri&#263;, Liebe 1996.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_27"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_27_marker28">^</a> See Gelber, Art. "Alkalay" 1927. On the modern and recent history of the Jews in Bosnia see Schwartz, Sarajevo Rose 2005.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_28"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_28_marker29">^</a> See Bukovec, Ost- und s&#252;dosteurop&#228;ische Juden 2011; Faroqhi, Geschichte 2000, pp. 89&#8211;94.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_29"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_29_marker30">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 79, who estimates the Jewish population to have numbered around 5,000 in the 17th century. Izmir was an entrepot for trade with Anatolia and the Middle East; its Jewish quarter lay on the fringes of the city's marketplace.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_30"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_30_marker31">^</a> On the history of Safed before the arrival of Sephardic Jews see Fine, Physician 2003, pp. 41&#8211;44.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_31"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_31_marker32">^</a> On aliyot, i.e. Jewish migrations to the Holy Land, see David, To Come 1999. On the demographic development of Safed in the 16th century see Fine, Physician 2003, p. 47.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_32"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_32_marker33">^</a> See Laras, Isaac Luria 2006, p. 414; Werblowsky, Joseph Karo 1962, pp. 38&#8211;83.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_33"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_33_marker34">^</a> See David, Safed 1987, p. 72.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_34"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_34_marker35">^</a> David, Safed 1987, p. 65, traces this apocalyptic religiosity to factors including the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, though Christian influences are also likely to have played a considerable role among Iberian Jews. On p. 73, David summarises the mood in the following terms: "Il semble que l'afflux de nombreux Conversos vers la Terre d'Isra&#235;l en g&#233;n&#233;ral, et vers Safed en particulier, ait d&#233;coul&#233; principalement de motivations messianiques. La catastrophe qui atteignit les Juifs de la P&#233;ninsule Ib&#233;rique &#224; la fin du XVe si&#232;cle laissa des traces qui se traduisirent aussi en espoirs messianiques depuis lors et pendant des g&#233;n&#233;rations. Nous sommes t&#233;moins du d&#233;veloppement de l'id&#233;e de la fin des temps et du d&#233;but de la fin de l'Exil ... Les esp&#233;rances converg&#232;rent particuli&#232;rement vers Safed; d'apr&#232;s une tradition comment&#233;e dans le livre du Zohar, le Messie se r&#233;v&#233;lera en Galil&#233;e ..." ("It seems that the influx of so many conversos to the Holy Land in general and to Safed in particular was due above all to messianic motives. The catastrophe that befell the Jews in the Iberian Peninsula at the end of the 15th century left traces which henceforth and over the course of generations became transformed into messianic hopes. We are witnesses to the emergence of the idea of the end of days and the beginning of the end of exile &#8230; Hopes were centred above all on Safed because, according to a tradition recorded in the Zohar, the messiah would appear in Galilee &#8230; ", author's translation.) A further aspect of the emergence of Sabbatianism was the reaction to the Thirty Years War, see Bukovec, Aschkenasische Juden 2010.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_35"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_35_marker36">^</a> It is important to note that since the traumatic event of 1492 the Kabbalah had partly become a popular phenomenon and ceased to be the preserve of elites, see Laras, Isaac Luria 2006, p. 413. This popularisation is also relevant to the phenomenon of messianism, see Laras, Isaac Luria 2006, p. 414: "Con la tragedia del '92 il pensiero cabbalistico far&#224; esperienza della contraddittoriet&#224; o, almeno, del non univoco significato dell'idea di Redenzione messianica, per molti, peraltro, gi&#224; prevista per quell'anno o intorno ad esso." ("By the tragedy of '92 the Kabbalistic idea was confronted with the experience of the contradictoriness or at least the ambiguous meaning of the idea of messianic redemption, which, incidentally, many anticipated for the current year or for the near future", author's translation.) There had been various Kabbalistic circles in Safed even before Luria, see Fine, Physician 2003, pp. 76f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_36"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_36_marker37">^</a> See Laras, Isaac Luria 2006, p. 418.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_37"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_37_marker38">^</a> For an introduction to Lurianic Kabbala see Necker, Einf&#252;hrung 2008.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_38"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_38_marker39">^</a> Ladino was written in Rashi, a Hebrew-derived script developed by the Jewish scholar Rashi (1040&#8211;1105) of Worms. On Ladino see Bunis, Languages 2009; Kowallik, Beitr&#228;ge zum Ladino 1989.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_39"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_39_marker40">^</a> See Levy, Introduction 1994, p. 37: "In the sixteenth century, Salonica, Istanbul, and Safed had replaced Toledo, Cordova, and Barcelona as major centers of Jewish scholarship and intellectual life." See also Simon, S&#233;pharades 1999, pp. 45&#8211;47.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_40"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_40_marker41">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, pp. 418f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_41"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_41_marker42">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, pp. 25f.; Faroqhi, Geschichte 2000, pp. 69ff.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_42"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_42_marker43">^</a> See Dubnow, Weltgeschichte, vol. 2, pp. 385f.; Faroqhi, Geschichte 2000, p. 55. He also maintained contacts with east European Jewry, not least by opening a branch of his wine trading firm in Lemberg (Lviv). He was proclaimed Prince of Naxos by the Sultan.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_43"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_43_marker44">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 119. This even became a popular folkloristic in Jewish (and Christian) stories.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_44"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_44_marker45">^</a> See Bukovec, Aschkenasische Juden 2010.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_45"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_45_marker46">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 143. Certain resemblances can be seen here with the situation in eastern Europe, see Bukovec, Aschkenasische Juden 2010.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_46"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_46_marker47">^</a> See Panova, Die Juden 1997, pp. 169f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_47"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_47_marker48">^</a> See Panova, Die Juden 1997, pp. 107, 171; Faroqhi, Geschichte 2000, p. 39.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_48"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_48_marker49">^</a> See Benbassa / Rodrigue, The Jews 1995, p. 82. Its tobacco industry meant that Salonica was alone in Ottoman Empire in having a Jewish proletariat.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_49"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_49_marker50">^</a> Derived from the Hebrew h&#257;k&#257;m and the Turkish ba&#351;&#305;, this honorific might be translated as "wise leader".</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_50"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_50_marker51">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 304.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_51"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_51_marker52">^</a> See Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, pp. 100f., 166f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_52"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_52_marker53">^</a> See Levy, Introduction 1994, p. 14.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_53"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_53_marker54">^</a> See Panova, Die Juden 1997, p. 52: "Die j&#252;dische Gemeinde &#252;bte ihre internen, selbst&#228;ndigen Funktionen aus, die eine Kombination zwischen den Rechten der geistlichen und der weltlich-zivilen Macht darstellten." ("The Jewish community performed its internal, autonomous functions, representing a combination between the rights of the spiritual and the secular-civil authorities", author's translation.)</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_54"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_54_marker55">^</a> This development became increasingly conflict ridden, particularly from the 17th century onwards, see Ben-Naeh, Jews 2008, p. 195. In this, the situation resembles that in eastern Europe, see Rest, Die russische Judengesetzgebung 1975, p. 35.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_55"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_55_marker56">^</a> See Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 357, 422.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_56"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_56_marker57">^</a> See Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, p. 354.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_57"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_57_marker58">^</a> See Steindorff, Die j&#252;dische Gemeinde 2005, p. 157.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_58"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_58_marker59">^</a> Steindorff, Die j&#252;dische Gemeinde 2005, p. 157.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_59"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_59_marker60">^</a> See Freidenreich, The Jews 1979, p. 42, p. 49: "Zagreb Jewry may thus be considered as generally bourgeois." The Croatian capital is generally perceived as bourgeois to this day, its inhabitants being colloquially known burgeri.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_60"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_60_marker61">^</a> See Steindorff, Die j&#252;dische Gemeinde 2005, p. 159.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_61"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_61_marker62">^</a> See Israel, Empires 1999, p. 357. On their international trading connections see Voolen, Juden 1994, p. 216.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_62"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_62_marker63">^</a> On the specialisation of Amsterdam's Sephardim on luxury goods see Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 54f.; Israel, Empires 1999, p. 425.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_63"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_63_marker64">^</a> See Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, p. 420.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_64"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_64_marker65">^</a> See Israel, Empires 1999, p. 425.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_65"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_65_marker66">^</a> See Israel, Empires 1999, p. 425.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_66"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_66_marker67">^</a> See Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, p. 17. On social inequality within the community see Stoutenbeek / Vigeveno, J&#252;disches Amsterdam 2007, p. 22.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_67"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_67_marker68">^</a> See Israel, Empires 1999, p. 425; Stoutenbeek / Vigeveno, J&#252;disches Amsterdam 2007, p. 20; Voolen, Juden 1994, pp. 215f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_68"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_68_marker69">^</a> See Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 107f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_69"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_69_marker70">^</a> The Jews of Amsterdam were active not only in colonial trade but also in credit, real estate and manufactories, see Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 375f., 398&#8211;406.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_70"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_70_marker71">^</a> See Stoutenbeek / Vigeveno, J&#252;disches Amsterdam 2007, p. 19: "An kaum einem anderen Ort Europas genossen Juden diese Grundfreiheiten." ("Scarcely anywhere else did Jews enjoy these basic liberties", author's translation.)</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_71"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_71_marker72">^</a> On the Sephardic synagogues of Amsterdam see Voolen, Juden 1994, pp. 208f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_72"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_72_marker73">^</a> On the proximity of the Jewish neighbourhoods to Rembrandt's sphere of activity see Voolen, Juden 1994; on Spinoza, see Yovel, Spinoza 1992.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_73"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_73_marker74">^</a> The community's internal situation in the 17th century is described by Pinkus, Die Portugiesische Gemeinde 1994.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_74"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_74_marker75">^</a> Braden, Hamburger Judenpolitik 2001, p. 357, puts the problem in the following terms: "Staatlicher Utilitarismus auf der einen und die damals gel&#228;ufigen religi&#246;s motivierten antij&#252;dischen Ressentiments auf der anderen Seite waren die wesentlichen Bedingungsfaktoren, die auf das Leben der Juden in Hamburg in politischer, wirtschaftlicher und sozialer Hinsicht in dem fraglichen Zeitraum einwirkten." ("State utilitarianism on the one side and the then usual religiously motivated anti-Jewish prejudice on the other were the key circumstances affecting the political, social and economic status of Hamburg's Jews at this time", author's translation.)</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_75"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_75_marker76">^</a> This tax was linked to the community's status as a merchant colony, see Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 272, 355.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_76"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_76_marker77">^</a> Even this decree was passed only after tough negotiations in the city council, see Braden, Hamburger Judenpolitik 2001, p. 86. See also Weber, Zwischen Religion 2010, 140f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_77"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_77_marker78">^</a> The 1617 revision regulated ritual slaughter but was in fact more restrictive, see Braden, Hamburger Judenpolitik 2001, pp. 149&#8211;157. That of 1650 largely confirmed the status quo but granted freedom of worship, see Braden, Hamburger Judenpolitik 2001, pp. 250f., 372f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_78"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_78_marker79">^</a> See Braden, Hamburger Judenpolitik 2001, pp. 109&#8211;115, 364. See p. 112: "Im Vergleich zu den in damaliger Zeit &#252;blichen Rechtssetzungen f&#252;r Juden in den Territorien sowie St&#228;dten des Alten Reiches, in denen ihnen die Lebensbedingungen meist durch Gesetze, Ordnungen oder Verordnungen von der Obrigkeit einseitig diktiert oder Privilegien gew&#228;hrt wurden, ist die in Hamburg 1612 f&#252;r die Niederlassungsregelungen der Portugiesen gew&#228;hlte Vertragsform als bemerkenswerte Ausnahmeerscheinung hervorzuheben." ("Compared with the legal constraints upon Jews then customary in the Holy Roman Empire's territories and cities, in which Jewish life was generally subject to the laws, decrees or ordinances unilaterally issued by the authorities or granted as privileges, the treaty form chosen in Hamburg in 1612 to regulate the settlement of the Portuguese certainly represents a remarkable exception", author's translation.)</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_79"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_79_marker80">^</a> See Braden, Hamburger Judenpolitik 2001, p. 135.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_80"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_80_marker81">^</a> See Weber, Zwischen Religion 2010, pp. 141f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_81"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_81_marker82">^</a> On anti-Jewish prejudice see B&#246;hm, Antij&#252;dische Ressentiments 1994.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_82"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_82_marker83">^</a> See Weber, Zwischen Religion 2010, p. 147.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_83"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_83_marker84">^</a> See Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 314f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_84"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_84_marker85">^</a> For more see Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 133&#8211;144.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_85"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_85_marker86">^</a> A key question here was whether the decree expelling the Jews issued by Edward I (1239&#8211;1307) in 1290 was still in force and, if so, whether it had to be repealed.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_86"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_86_marker87">^</a> Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, p. 145. See also p. 314: "Die Obrigkeiten waren sich sehr wohl bewu&#223;t, da&#223; es in London eine Gruppe von sefardischen Juden gab, aber sie gingen weder gegen sie vor, noch unternahmen sie Schritte, um ihren Aufenthalt offiziell zu legalisieren." ("The authorities were well aware that a group of Sephardic Jews dwelt in London, but they neither moved against them nor took measures officially to legalise their residence", author's translation.)</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_87"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/predrag-bukovec-sephardic-jews-in-the-early-modern-era#InsertNoteID_87_marker88">^</a> See Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 313f. On the economic activities of London's Jews see Wallenborn, Bekehrungseifer 2003, pp. 65&#8211;67.</li>
</ol>
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			Bukovec, Predrag: Sephardic Jews in the Early Modern Era, in:
			Europ&#228;ische Geschichte Online (EGO),
			hg. vom Leibniz-Institut f&#252;r Europ&#228;ische Geschichte (IEG), Mainz 
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			2025-12-18.
			URL: <a id="primaryurl" href="">https://www.ieg-ego.eu/bukovecp-2013b-en</a>
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